Internal Assesment- Heuristics: Tversky and Kahneman's

In psychology heuristics are described as simple and efficient rules. That have been coded by evolutionary processes or learned, which have been used to explain how people make decisions, make judgments, and how they solve problems, when facing problems or when they are presented with incomplete information. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman are two men who proposed the theory that when people are faced with the task of judging probability or frequency, people use a limited number of strategies, (heuristics) in order to simplify these judgments. They suggested that people judge likelihood of events based on how it 'represents' a larger group or similar examples this is now known as representativeness heuristic. They came to the conclusion that this his idea fits with accepted models of learning theory, especially the fact that we tend to categorize things in the memory and store things by association, therefore they are more likely to stereotype. In the another heuristic also know as availability heuristic They based on the idea that when asked to judge probability of an event, we base our judgment on how easy it is to think of relevant examples. In an experiment conducted to test this they presented participants with four lists of names: two lists containing 19 famous women and 20 less famous men, and two lists containing 19 famous men and 20 less famous women. The first group were asked to recall as many names as possible and the second group were asked to estimate which class was more frequent, either famous or less famous. The results were that first, the famous names were most easily recalled compared to the less famous names. Despite the fact that the less famous names were more frequent, the majority of the participants wrongly judged that the famous names appeared more often. Therefore an important factor that emerged from this study proved that the availability heuristic serves as an effective strategy in many situations. Although they lead to accurate judgments, they may also lead to systematic errors especially when it comes to judging frequency. For my experiment we will attempt to use the same idea used by the psychologists and hopefully obtain similar results. We will prepare a list that will each contain a set of names, these names may be either famous people, less famous people or just random names in two columns. Then the participant will be given a sheet of paper and a pencil and asked to recall and write down as many names as they are able to remember. Hopefully by conducting this experiment we will be able to further prove Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman theory.

The Placebo Effect - Is it real or just imagined?

The placebo effect is a huge phenomenon in which patient’s symptoms are alleviated by a non-existent treatment, since the patient believes that they will get better and that the treatment will work. It is almost like healing your body with your mind because you get better since your brain really thinks you are better thanks to the treatment. In H.K Beecher’s study he concluded that 55% of the patients that took the placebo had improvement in their conditions. But when the Institute for Applied Theory and Methodologies in Health Care, in Frieburg, Germany decided to reedo the study done by Beecher they discovered that 66.7 percent of patients conditions inproved naturally and had nothing to do with the placebo, also patients that had the placebo had improvement in their conditions after six days, but they would recover after six days even if they were not given any placebo. Also they found that Beecher stated that patients improved after they were switched form the real medicine to the placebo, but reaserchers found that this was due to the fact that patients were experiencing side effects to the medication. And Beecher did not report the large number of people whos condition worsened due to the placebo, instead he only reported the people whos condition it improved. So in reality there was not evidence of a of the plavebo effect. Some problems experienced with these studies are psychosomatic problems, stress induced and conditioned responses. Although through some studies have concluded that the placebo effect is imaginary, I do believe that it is real. I do think that if in your mind you believe that you are going to get better you will because your mind has the power to influence the rest of your body. After the many videos we watched in class i do believe that there is a lot of evidence to prove that the placebo effect is real. I also believe that religious miracles have more to do with placebos and the power of your mind to heal you than the fact that it is a "miracle".



Sources:
http://www.chiro.org/nutrition/FULL/Debunking_the_Placebo.shtml
http://www.skepdic.com/placebo.html

Are All Memories Alike? #2

I think that this was a very interesting article it had a lot of information and it was a very extensive research but i personally do not believe that recolection of memories have anything to do with your culture, or where you live. I think it is racist to think that personally almost as if saying that one culture is more superior because we have a better memory or because we have superior thinking. I think that everything has to do with the way your are raised, or how your family is and interacts with you. Some families are very united and big and like discussing past events and you begin to piece together memories and maybe you come from a family that is not very close and you cant piece together memories and so you don't really know or remember that far back. I think its wrong to say that cultural differences have anything to do.

Are All Memories Alike? #1

First of all it was no surprise reading that women really are better than men in many more things. I truly believe that women are able to remember more specific things such as faces, events , pictures because i think we put more emotion and we are more attached to everything we do un like men. I also believe that there should have been male scientists involved in the experiment. I also believe that women pay more attention to details therefore we are able to remember faces and other things much easier while i believe men are more focused on the big picture. So i think this was a really great article and i think everyone should read :)

Articles on Memory #3

The Memories You Want To Forget Are The Hardest Ones To Lose



Researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Have conducted a study that painful or emotional memories that people would most like to forget may be the toughest to forget especially if they are seen through for example a photograph as opposed to reading it. Other studies of emotional events and forgetting, had studied emotion-laden words "death". This new study did the complete opposite by asking 218 participants to react to photographs instead of text. This proved that a person makes a lot of connections between emotional events and other parts of your life, so it difficult to isolate them, as well as the fact that emotion places limits on the ability to control the contents of the mind. This may be applied to real life for example when you go through a breakup you may want to forget everything that happened but you are still emotionally attached to that person and to everything that the person represented.

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070815105026.htm

Articles on Memory #2

The Language Of Emotion: Ad Slogans In Native Tongues Connect To Consumers' Emotions



Stefano Puntoni, Bart de Langhe, and Stijn van Osselaer from Erasmus University located in the Netherlands conducted a very interesting experiment that proved ad slogans that are in a person's native language connects to the consumer on a much higher and emotional level. To conduct this experiment they tested different slogans with participants and found differences in how the messages were perceived. By completing this experiment they were able to find out that native languages tend to be perceived as more emotional than messages expressed in their second language. This has nothing to do with the person's understanding or level of difficulty with the language but most people have personal memories that are usually in that native tongue rather than your second language, therefore a word in the slogan may trigger a memory. Also they found another reason why women are better than man: Women have a much stronger memory for emotional events. This related back to real life because for example i see an ad in my language about enjoying a type a coffee by the fire, this might trigger my memory of spending time with my family during christmas time by the fire and having an amazing time therefore would make me want to buy this coffee to remember these great times.

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/12/081215111433.htm

Articles on Memory #1

Early Scents Really Do Get 'Etched' In The Brain



This experiment explains that smells may be recorded into your memory, this being either a good or a bad smell. The researchers of the Weizmann Institute of Science, in Rehovot, Israel, conducted this experiment. These include Yaara Yeshurun, Hadas Lapid, Yadin Dudai, and Noam Sobel. To conduct this experiment the researchers offered adults a visual object along with one, and later with a second, set of pleasurable and distasteful odors and an MRI was imaging sounds while their brains. A week later the researchers presented these same objects inside the MRI and tested partakers association of those images with the scents and smells. By conducting this experiment the researchers concluded that people remembered early links more clearly when they were unpleasant, not considering if they were smelled or heard. The images form the MRI revealed a distinctive activation in particular brain region in the case of their first olfactory association. I believe we can apply this research in real life because since we know and our brain know how something smells we can be able to identify or even prevent something from happening for example knowing how an apple smells since you are allergic it is an unpleasant smell for you because you cant associate it with getting sick, Therefore you avoid anything that smells like apples to prevent.

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/11/091105132448.htm

Alzheimer's Disease

More than 5 million Americans suffer from Alzheimer’s, which is a very sad number. Before watching this video when I though about the disease I only though oh it happens to old people and they forget a lot of things. I had never really realized how serious, shocking and actually very sad Alzheimer’s is. Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive brain disease that very slowly destroys your memory and thinking skills, and people eventually will no longer be able to perform even the simplest tasks. I believe this is one of the saddest things that can happen because you not only become unable to have a normal life but you know that you are loosing your mind, you are loosing your sense of identity and your memories. I think the saddest part is that this disease is irreversible, there is no cure. The video we watched were very sad because we are being able to see into a very intimate part of these people's life, how they are changing and how it not only affect the person but it also affects their loved ones. I believe the most shocking part was when we were introduced to a woman who could not even recognize her own son y it was heart breaking, also the part when she was hallucinating that there was a snake is her wheel chair when there clearly was nothing. Another sad part was when a man who knew he was loosing to Alzheimer’s was talking about how he wanted to kill himself and it was so sad to see his wife listening and crying. I also believe that the people who care for people who have alzheimer's are very strong especially if they are sons/daughter, or spouse because as we saw on the video in class it requires your full attention and its also depressing to see your loved one not recognize you less every single day. People should be more involved in finding a cure for this terrible disease because we never know if we may someday suffer from it.

WHAT IS MEMORY..HOW DOES IT WORK?

1.Explain the concept of sensory memory.
It contains the information that is immediately received from someone’s sense into the human brain. Sensory memory is then stored only for a few seconds. Sensory memory is basically the sensations that continue after you have perceived something. Its is one of the first levels of memorization and observation. So sensory memory is basically when you hear , touch , smell or see something and that is no longer in your presence you will have that memory.

2.Give an example of sensory memory.
An example is when you discover ice cubes for the first time. You sensory memory will remember it as very cold and hard. Therefore every time you think of anything made of ice you will associate it with your first impression of the ice cube.

3. What is the capacity of our sensory memory?
The capacity of our memories or the amount of memories that we are able to store it can store about 15-20 icons. These memories don’t last more than a few seconds.

4. Describe the concept of short-term memory.
Short term memory can be described as the amount of information that is being processed in your memory at once. The items in short term memory have to be almost rehearsed in order to keep in your short term memory, they will usually last about 20 seconds , or less. For example when you meet someone and a few seconds later you can’t remember their name.

5. What is the "magic number" as it relates to short-term memory and who conducted the experiment which established this measurement?
In your short term the average person can maintain about 7 items people with better ability can go up to nine and people with lesser ability can go down to 5. Therefore the magic number is seven plus, or minus two.This was first studies by a Harvard University psychologist named George A Miller, published in Psychology Review a paper in 1956.

6. What is chunking?
Chunking is the process where you take little pieces of information and group them into a much larger group. Such as a phone number or even remembering words or names. Chunks is useful when memorizing large pieces of information.

7. What has been determined to be the ideal size of "chunks" for both letters and numbers?
The ideal size for chunks and number is three. That is why people learn and remember phone numbers in three digit chunks, and the other remaining numbers in groups of two.

8. Which mode of encoding does short-term memory mostly rely on, acoustic or visual?
I believe that the mode of enconding that short term memory mostly rely on is visual because you can encode much more elaborately an experience or some type of information can help making it richer, more vivid memory by creating more ways of reclaim those memories later.

9. Explain the duration and capacity of long-term memory.
The capacity of long term memory is of up to seven pieces of independent information, while the duration these items last from 3 to 20 seconds.

10. Explain in detail the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of memory.

In 1965 two psychologists Atkinson and Shiffrin suggested that the human human memory was ordered as an information processing system that had three stages. First they suggested that information from peoples surroundings first enters a sensory storage system or also called by Atkinson and Shiffrin “Sensory Registers” during this period the information is saved for a small period in order for the brain to be able to process it. Then the information enters a second memory system known as short-term store. Here the activity of the brain is represented meaning whatever you are thinking about at that moment. Then the last sequence is the long term memory also known as secondary memory.

11. Identify three criticisms or limitations of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of memory.

The first criticism is that the sensory stores are sensory systems, not memory systems as most people belive or are lead to think, also the model suggests that there is nothing in between short-term and long-term memory and last does not give enough importance to unconscious processes.

12.Explain the Levels of Processing Model of memory.
Maintenance rehearsal which is repeating the information, Elaborative rehearsal which involves deeper, more semantic analysis of information and Distinctiveness which is being able to distinguish the items.

13. What is maintenance rehearsal - give an example.
Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of an item's auditory representation. Unlike elaborative rehearsal, this type of rehearsal does not lead to stronger or more durable memories. For example when someone gives you a number and you repeat that number so you don't forget it in the time that is takes you to hang up and dial the new number.

14. What is elaborative rehearsal - give an example.
Elaborative rehearsal involves deep processing of a to-be-remembered items resulting in the production of durable memories An example is grouping the digits together to form a phone number transforms the stimulation from a meaningless string of digits to something that has meaning.

15. Who developed the Levels of Processing Model and the concepts of maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?

These were developed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart in 1972.

How Does Your Memory Work?

I believe that this video is very fascinating, interesting and very informative. It taught us a lot about the way our memory works and also made us think about the importance of our memory in a way we had not done before. I had never before thought about the importance of memories or how your memories are able to shape who you are or who you will be. I do believe that your memories are a very important factor of who you are because no one in the world will ever be the same because no one will have the exact same memories. I was also fascinated at the about John who did not have memories it makes me realize that your memories is something that we take for granted when in reality we use it every single day for absolutely everything. John’s story is very interesting because he will no be able to function as a normal person in society because of his lack to have memories. The video also had many interesting facts for example that you need your memories from your past in order to imagine your future. This is very funny because when you want to think about the future its usually leaving the past behind but in reality you need your past to imagine a future. I really enjoyed watching the video it was very entertaining and I truly believe I learned a lot.

The Stroop Effect

Information:
The Stroop Effect became popular during the 1930’s by John Ridley Stroop. This experiment is used to learn how the brain processes information. This is a demonstration of how the brain experiences slowed processing time because it is trying to sort through conflicting information.

In the Stroop Effect:
1. Subject is given a list of words for colors printed in different colors
2. He is then asked to read the words, you should take the time to compare
3. Subject is then asked to name the color of the ink used to print each word, you should also take time
4. Subject will experience a delayed reaction time, because the subject's brain is trying to suppress the input from the printed words in order to focus on the color of the words.
5. Compare the time it took to complete each test. Usually the amount of time it took to complete the second exam is doubled from the time it took for the first exam.



Conclusion:
The words have a strong influence over our ability to say and process the color. This is why it takes so much time for the subject taking the test to read the color of the words rather than the actual words. The difference between the different information which is what the words say and the color of the words causes a problem on our brain. Some of the reasons why this may happen can be because the interference occurs because words are read faster than colors are named, or because the interference occurs because words are read faster than colors are named, or because the interference occurs because naming colors requires more attention than reading words.



http://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=150197
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/words.html#seffect

The Myth of Multitasking

1. Why is multitasking considered by many psychologists to be a myth?
Many psychologists believe that multitasking is a myth because you can’t not do two things at the same time and to them well. Your mind has to switch between the to tasks so you never have you full attention on two things.

2. To what does the term "response selection bottleneck" refer?
It refers to when a person is trying to do multiple things at once , and you have to go back to giving your attention to every single thing. And you are trying to do multiple things at once when you should only do once thing at a time.

3. David Meyer has found that multitasking contributes to the release of stress hormones and adrenaline. Why is this important?
It is important because this can cause long term health problems if not controlled and contributes to the loss of short term memory.

4. Explain what Russell Podrack found regarding multitasking.
He found that multitasking adversely affects how you learn. Even if you learn while multitasking. Learning is less flexible and more specialized, so you can’t retrieve the information as easily.

5. What does the author conclude could happen to our culture as a result of increased multitasking?
We may adjust and come to accept it. It may also become just another part of our daily routine. Also with crumbs of attention rationed out among many competing tasks, their culture may gain in information, but will surely weaken in wisdom.

Observations of the BaMbuti Pygmies

Bambuti Pygmies are one of the oldest indigenous people of the Congo region of Africa. The Bambuti are composed of bands which are relatively small in size, ranging from 15 to 60 people. The Bambuti population totals about 30,000 to 40,000 people.The forest of Ituri iwhere they live is a tropical rainforest. In this area, there is a high amount of rainfall The rainforest is 70,000 square kilometers.The forest is a humid region strewn with rivers and lakes. The Bambuti live in villages that are categorized as bands. Each hut houses a family unit. At the start of the dry season, they leave the village to enter the forest and set up a series of camps. These villages are solitary and separated from other groups of people. Their houses are small, circular, and very temporary. They do not use blueprints, but instead trace the outline of the house into the ground. The walls of the structures are strong sticks that are placed in the ground and at the top of the sticks, a vine is tied around them to keep them together. The Bambuti are primarily hunter-gatherers, foraging for food in the forest. The Bambuti have a vast knowledge about the forest and the foods it yields. They collect an assortment of food, including crabs, shellfish, ants, larvae, snails, pigs, antelopes, monkeys, fishes, honey, wild yams, berries, fruits, roots, leaves, and cola nuts.There is a lore that can be tied to Bambuti mythology, where the giant forest hog is thought to be a physical manifestation of Negoogunogumbar. Other food sources yielded by the forest are non-kweri animals for meat consumption, root plants, palm trees, and bananas and in some seasons, wild honey. Yams, legumes, beans, peanuts, hibiscus, amaranth, and gourds are consumed.The Bambuti use large nets, traps, and bows and arrows to hunt game. Women and children sometimes help out by trying to drive the animals into the nets. Both sexes gather and forage. Each band has its own hunting ground, although boundaries are hard to maintain. Colin Turnbull was an anthropologist who studies the Bambuti Pygmies. He wrote several books about them and other tribes and also made some recording tapes that are sold commercialy about the pygmies.

COLIN TURNBULL

Colin M. Turnbull was born in London, England in 1924. He attended Magdalen College at Oxford University. Turnbull studied philosophy, politics and music. At the completion of his studies he joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve during World War II. He moved to hold a research in the Department of Indian Religion and Philosophy at Banaras Hindu University in India. Turnbull returned to Oxford to attend Oxford University where he studied anthropology, specializing in the African field.Turnbull first became interested in African ethnology on a motorcycle trip in 1951 during which he viewed East Africa, the Congo, the Sudan, and Egypt. It was on this trip that he first visited the Pygmies. In 1954, Turnbull returned to Africa to tape record native music, some of these tapes are even commercially available. Then he returned once again to the Congo, this time under a grant from the Royal Anthropological Institute to continue his studied on Pygmy life. Turnbull made six major trips to Africa and his work with universities and museums has also largely been connected with African studies. Turnbull has held many positions. He has held the position of Assistant Curator of African Ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History, worked as a geologist for a gold mine in northern Canada, written radio and television scripts, and made documentary films for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, including eight in Africa.Turnbull's last position was at George Washington University, where he taught and pursued interested in writing, fieldwork, farming, and making music. He left George Washington University in 1984. Colin Turnbull passed away in 1994.

What Factors Influence Our Perception???

Many things are able to influence our perception. An external factor for example are our experiences that have made a huge impact in our life such as an accident that may scar the way we see the world. For example if you were in a car crash you perception to cars is fear but for someone else it may be happiness because they got good news once while riding a car. Every single thing that happens in your life could be a contributing factor for your perception. This could change the way you see or feel about something either in a good or bad way. As an internal factor our sensory system responds to our environment such as personality , the way your learn or motives.




5 Things I like/make me happy/ect.
-My yorkie Leyla "Pinch"
-Watching "How i met your mother"
-Listening to music
-GG's Spring Rolls
-Reading Sarah Dessen



5 Things I dislike/make me sad/angry/ect
-Knowing my boyfriend is leaving for college on Saturday:(
-Animal Cruelty maakes me very very mad
-Getting bad grades
-Going to free at the libary (the women there are b*&%#@s)
-Going to the gym makes me frustrated

Perception IS Reality

I believe technically perception is not reality but in your mind it may be. Everything can cause people to have a different perception. These could inculde someones past experience or reaction. No one has every had the exact same experiences as you therefore this can change the way you view , hear or even see different things. Our perception can also change a person in many many different ways like our self esteem. For example someone who grows up being told that you are beautiful no matter what your shape or size is may have a different perception of their body as opposed to the girl who grows up being told to diet and be skinny since this may affect the ways she looks a herself. So your percection is not reality since someone may not have the same perception of the world or certain objects as you.

Why is Psychology Important???

I believe that psychology is important for many reasons. First of all it is a study that helps us understand human behavior.Psycology could guide us to understand why some people act or react the way they do.Also it helps us understand the mind and the brain.Also the use of psychology has been crucial for doctors since it has helped discover some diseases such as Alzheimers.